From Renegade to Regular Joe: The Black Leather Jacket's Values for Bikers more

IJMS / DeLong et al / Black Leather Jacket 10/19/11 3:40 PM Volume 6, Issue 2: Fall 2010 From Renegade to Regular Joe: The Black Leather Jacket’s Values for Bikers Marilyn DeLong, Kelly Gage, Juyeon Park, and Monica Sklar Introduction The traditional black leather jacket has been a constant and easily identifiable form for over half a century and continuing research of the black leather jacket shows that it has been an amazingly persistent consumer-linked product (DeLong and Park 178). However, this standard form of the black leather jacket has developed varied meanings based upon the experience of riding a motorcycle. One way of understanding this relationship is by considering the jacket’s value to its consumers: bikers. As Morris Holbrook has argued, consumer value is the “interactive relativistic experience” between the consumer and the product, and that consumer value resides not only in the product but also in those consumption experiences derived from using the product (5). Thus, to understand the significance of the black leather jacket, we must consider its value to riders. IJMS search engine Search Create your own Custom Search Engine Gadgets powered by Google In the twentieth century, the male rider, with his bike and black leather jacket, became a symbol of rebellion and individualism. As a result, the male rider became known as a renegade. By contrast, the motorcycle rider of the twenty-first century continues to wear the black leather jacket but the image has broadened beyond that of the male renegade, to include wearers such as the regular Joe or Josephine who loves the ride, the freedom, and the sense of living on the edge. Our research reveals that the contemporary wearer is more often coming out of the ranks of the conventional, with a steady job of day-care provider, lawyer, educator, corporate executive, or real estate developer, an individual more used to complying with protocol but who is interested in stepping outside his/her persona when riding a motorcycle. This contemporary rider still wears and values the black leather jacket, but for different reasons than the twentieth-century biker. In this study, we examine the motivations for riding and the accompanying values of Page 1 of 18 http://ijms.nova.edu/Fall2010/IJMS_Artcl.DeLongetal.html IJMS / DeLong et al / Black Leather Jacket 10/19/11 3:40 PM wearing the black leather jacket through the responses of the contemporary wearer and rider. The Black Leather Jacket in the Twentieth Century The idea of the black leather jacket encompasses many variations of men’s leather jackets, worn by all social groups. Over time, it has taken on multiple roles of identification making its wearer a survivor, hero, anarchist, and sex symbol. The story of the black leather jacket in the twentieth century spans seven decades and stretches geographically around the world. In the twentieth century, the black leather motorcycle jacket evolved from a military past. As Mick Farren explains, during World War I, German officers and aviators both wore the black leather jacket. During WWII, the jacket was reintroduced and became a signature piece of clothing for Nazi Germany and was equated with power and domination. In the United States during WWII, the uniform of General Patton included the black leather jacket and, as such, reflected admiration for wartime heroes. However, the black leather jacket is not necessarily associated with war but with the “fictionalized and sensationalized images” of ex-GIs as portrayed in The Wild One (Alford and Ferriss 182). Marlon Brando played this part wearing a military cap and a black leather jacket that soon became an image of rebellion. The year of the film’s release, 1953, was a turning point for motorcycle culture and the motorcycle jacket: the W-style jacket purchased from Schott Brothers and worn by Brando became the most popular style in motorcycle jackets (Tanaka 141), and wearing such a jacket made the male rider feel empowered. With the burgeoning population post WWII, the numbers of teenagers increased and the concept of teens as “Other” created social tensions in American culture (Philips). Teens were criticized for being grouporiented and searching for pleasure, excitement, novelty and violence. Along with the mid-century concept of teenager came the idea of the juvenile delinquent. In the 1950s and ’60s the black leather jacket became part of the look of the emerging cultural hero/antihero teenage archetype and a visual expression of revolt against the standardized social norm of the day. Robert Brustein describes this hero as of medium height, muscular, with a surly expression, uncombed hair falling over his forehead, with right hand resting on his right hip defiantly (123). Jeans, t-shirt and black leather jacket became the urban uniform for young men. Key words in film titles, such as “rebel” and “wild,” hinted that the wardrobes of the young no longer included the suits, shirts, and ties worn by those in mainstream society (Constantino http://ijms.nova.edu/Fall2010/IJMS_Artcl.DeLongetal.html Page 2 of 18 IJMS / DeLong et al / Black Leather Jacket 10/19/11 3:40 PM 183). In the 1970s, the black leather jacket was still linked to the biker but often with a difference: a teenage male did not have to ride a bike to wear the black leather jacket and identify with the image created in mid century as an expression of youthful rebellion (Brustein 127, Salisbury 94). The Fonz in the television comedy Happy Days is remembered as wearing a black leather jacket. However, the Fonz, as rebel turned functioning member of society, was a softened character, assisting in a reinvention of the image of the black leather jacket. The Integral Relationship of Black Leather Jacket, Motorcycle, and Rider To research the black leather jacket means to consider the complex and tightly woven relationship of the jacket with the motorcycle, the act of riding, and the rider. Part of a motorcycle’s intrinsic beauty is the motorcycle itself, a utilitarian object and, according to Steven Alford and Suzanne Ferriss, the most beautiful are those from which “everything has been removed except that which promotes and enhances the ride” (170). Riding is like being at one with the motorcycle and a visceral experience that is difficult to communicate: “to experience a motorcycle you have to ride one, preferably as fast as possible” (Alford and Ferriss 48). In fact, riding a motorcycle “may not be merely an activity, but also a mode of being” (McDonald-Walker 13) and wearing the black leather jacket is part of that experience. As part of the experience of riding, the black leather jacket is designed for function as well. Leather is an ideal fabric, offering warmth and protection from rain and even debris when the rider is sliding on rough pavement, and the black color disguises road dirt (Alford and Ferriss 181). The design of the jacket is functionally striking—with the double panel in the front, the collar that can be worn up or down and the pockets placed at an angle for convenience. However, leather’s popularity for both riders and non-riders “stems from complex associations between the material, the machine and its riders” (Alford and Ferriss 181). The black leather jacket has become a “talismanic token of roughness and masculinity through a combination of historical and popular associations” (Alford and Ferriss 181). This is most visibly evident in the iconic status of the black leather jacket within motorcycle culture—and more significantly outside it. The black leather jacket is associated with the power of the machine and “its intimate connection to the body further endows it with sexual significance.” (Alford and Ferriss 184). In http://ijms.nova.edu/Fall2010/IJMS_Artcl.DeLongetal.html Page 3 of 18 IJMS / DeLong et al / Black Leather Jacket 10/19/11 3:40 PM the twentieth century, the symbolic associations of leather became increasingly important and were tangentially linked with fetishism for both heterosexuals as well as a significant gay “leatherman” subculture (Steele 154). The black leather jacket persists today as a product valued by both men and women. It is a slice of material culture that continues to have great appeal to a broad demographic. This study asked, “why the continued appeal?” Using a framework that articulates consumer value precisely, we designed a survey for the contemporary biker to determine how the rider values this traditional garment: the black leather jacket. Methodology Holbrook’s Typology of Consumer Value What types of questions would give insight into how the biker values the black leather jacket? We selected Morris Holbrook’s “Typology of Consumer Value” (12) as the framework to create questions for an online survey that expressed each value (see Table 1). In this way we could explore the full range of ways these consumers valued the black leather jacket. Seventeen statements were designed to reflect eight cross-tabs. Statements were based on preliminary knowledge gained through personal conversations with individuals who owned a black leather jacket and rode a motorcycle. Table 1. Holbrook’s Typology of Consumer Value Holbrook’s framework relies on the consumer’s relationship with the object in question and seeks to address multi-modal reasoning in the values attached to the black leather jacket. Two perspectives are self and other; within each there are two additional perspectives of active and reactive. These four perspectives combine with extrinsic and intrinsic orientations to equal eight categories. Collectively these eight categories provide a summary framework for a comprehensive study of consumer http://ijms.nova.edu/Fall2010/IJMS_Artcl.DeLongetal.html Page 4 of 18 IJMS / DeLong et al / Black Leather Jacket 10/19/11 3:40 PM value. The first orientation is Extrinsic and Intrinsic value (Holbrook 12). Extrinsic value is a means-end relationship, where value lies in a product’s functional, utilitarian service as a means to accomplish some further purpose, such as using a screwdriver to drive in a screw, buying a meal to satisfy hunger, or purchasing an automobile to fulfill transportation needs. Intrinsic value is a consumption experience appreciated as an end in and of itself, such as a day at the beach or listening to a symphony. Intrinsic value is an experience that achieves no other end but enjoyment. The second orientation is “Self” and “Other” (Holbrook 10). Selforiented value is prized for the individual’s sake—how I react to it or for the effect it has on me. For example, a sweater is valued because it gives warmth to the wearer; jazz recordings provide enjoyable listening experiences for me. Other-oriented moves beyond the self to someone or something else for primary significance: a Lexus for impressing neighbors or giving up aerosol containers to help save the planet. Other-oriented values could range from impression management at the micro level (family, friends, colleagues) to the macro level (Mother Nature, the Deity). The third orientation of value is Active and Reactive (Holbrook 11). Active involves a physical manipulation of a tangible object, such as driving a car, or a mental manipulation, such as solving a crossword puzzle. It involves things done by the consumer to, or with a product, as part of a consumption experience. Reactive applies when the experience results from appreciating, admiring or otherwise responding to some object, as in appreciating a painting or assessing the quality of a camera. In this case, value resides not in the product purchased/object possessed, but in the consumption experience, the idea being that people desire satisfying experiences and they want products because they want the experience they hope the products will provide (Holbrook 8). Instrument An online survey including both quantitative and qualitative questions was designed to gain insight into the experiences and motivations of the rider and how he or she values the black leather jacket. The survey included demographic information of gender, age, location, household income, education, and occupation. Respondents were asked how many jackets they owned, about features they valued in their jacket(s), and reasons for wearing the jacket while riding. They were asked to compare http://ijms.nova.edu/Fall2010/IJMS_Artcl.DeLongetal.html Page 5 of 18 IJMS / DeLong et al / Black Leather Jacket 10/19/11 3:40 PM their jackets with a sketch (Figure 1) of the iconic form that originated in the 1950s, featuring a double-breasted cut with multiple zippers and a full collar. There were also questions about the motorcycle riding activity itself that were considered integral to, but did not specifically pertain to, wearing the jacket. These questions served to gather more background information on each respondent’s personal history in relation with motorcycles and experiences while riding and wearing the jacket. Figure 1: Prototype image of the traditional black leather motorcycle jacket Seventeen statements included in the survey were conceived to determine consumer value, as described by Holbrook, associated with the black leather jacket. Differences in how the wearer values the jacket were highlighted through examples as described by the wearer to address degrees of commitment to Holbrook’s measures of consumer value. Each statement was presented with the option to agree or disagree and provided space for respondents to include additional open-ended information related to the statement. All were conceived to represent one or more of Holbrook’s valuations, such as Aesthetics or Status. Examples included “My black leather jacket gives me pleasure to wear” and “My black leather jacket projects the image I desire” to reflect Aesthetics, and “My black leather jacket enhances my reputation” to reflect Status. While value statements of the survey spoke to the act of wearing the jacket, the strong relationship placed by respondents between riding their motorcycle and wearing their jacket expresses an intrinsic link between jacket, riding, and value. 79.4% of respondents answered “Describe an event or activity when you would ride and wear your black leather jacket” with statements indicating that they wore the jacket every time they rode (45.5%) or that they always wore it unless it was too warm (33.9%). These riders strongly associate riding with their jackets and speak to the total experience: riding, jacket, image, and camaraderie. The survey was piloted, refined, and then posted online following human subjects’ approval. http://ijms.nova.edu/Fall2010/IJMS_Artcl.DeLongetal.html Page 6 of 18 IJMS / DeLong et al / Black Leather Jacket 10/19/11 3:40 PM Participant Recruitment Individuals who ride, own and wear at least one black leather jacket to ride participated in this study. Participants were sought through a snowball effect with the researchers contacting acquaintances who ride motorcycles and own a black leather jacket, as well as through publicly available e-mail listings for motorcycle clubs. Participants were asked to forward the survey information to individuals they knew who also met the criteria. Additionally, business-card-sized promotional materials were distributed when the researchers encountered potential participants. Data Analysis Frequency in agreement and disagreement to each statement was calculated. Percentages of agreement were averaged with the statement(s) in each Holbrook category. Statements were grouped by value according to their pre-survey construction and the agreement percentages were averaged to assess the agreement within a particular value. Eight statements were designed that could express more than one value of the participant. Open-ended, qualitative responses asking respondents to describe specific experiences related to wearing their black leather jacket were coded for analysis. As well, they were used as supportive accounts of the consumer values expressed in Holbrook’s typology framework. Results and Discussion Demographic data Participants from the United States numbered 389 and included 236 (61%) males and 153 (39%) females. Results from the survey show the average age of respondents at 46 years. Compared with the latest available owner survey the percentage of female respondents in this study was significantly greater than the national demographic trends, [1] but the average age of the respondents corresponds with that of the typical motorcycle owner: 43 years in 2008 (Motorcycle Industry Council 12). Forty-two percent of respondents (n=162) reported household income between $50,000 and $99,999, with thirty-two percent (n=124) registering income above $100,000. [2] Eighty-six percent (n=333) identified that they have additional education beyond high school. In response to the question on how many jackets they owned, participants reported owning from 1 to 78, with two jackets noted as the average number owned. http://ijms.nova.edu/Fall2010/IJMS_Artcl.DeLongetal.html Page 7 of 18 IJMS / DeLong et al / Black Leather Jacket 10/19/11 3:40 PM Prototype comparison Participants were asked to compare their jacket to the prototype (Figure 1) of the black leather jacket. Seventy two percent of respondents (n = 280) indicated that their jacket was same (e.g., “My jacket looks just like this one”) or similar with minor differences (e.g., “I removed the buckle because it scratched the paint on my bike”). Survey responses to the prototype support the continuing form and meaning associated with the traditional black leather motorcycle jacket (see Table 2). Table 2: Responses by U.S. participants to the question of comparison of their own jacket to the 1950s sketch. Attributes of biker leathers have followed a recognizable and continuous form since their introduction in the twentieth century. The black leather jacket continues in its straightforward form but has become more than a simple, utilitarian garment. Respondents reported expressing their personal style through emblems, brand, fit, and detailing of jackets, pants, boots, and shirts. Typology of Consumer Value One may wonder why riders maintain such a strong attachment to the aesthetics and values of the traditional style of the black leather jacket. Technological advancements have greatly increased the safety, weight, and wearability of motorcycle jackets and provided many alternatives to leather. However, the contemporary riders continue to purchase the style of leather jacket similar to that introduced in Brando’s era. Agreement about jacket attributes is important to recognize and Holbrook’s framework highlights the values for the rider and the connection to tradition. All categories of consumer value as listed in the “Typology of Consumer Value” received some agreement from respondents, with a range from 18.8% (Other: active, extrinsic, status) to 74.4% (Self: active, extrinsic, efficiency) (see Table 3). Responses indicate higher agreement in values of Efficiency, Play, Spirituality, and Excellence (see Table 4). http://ijms.nova.edu/Fall2010/IJMS_Artcl.DeLongetal.html Page 8 of 18 IJMS / DeLong et al / Black Leather Jacket 10/19/11 3:40 PM Table 3: Holbrook’s Typology of Consumer Value and Categorized Average Agreement Percentages of Survey Responses Table 4: Survey Responses listed according to highest agreement with Holbrook’s Typology Self-oriented, extrinsic, active efficiency, (convenience) Efficiency involves extrinsic value that results from the active use of a product or consumption experience as a means to achieve some selforiented purpose, such as “I carry keys in my pocket to open doors.” Often efficiency is measured as a ratio of outputs to inputs or an O/I ratio (Holbrook 13). For example, we might assess the efficiency of an automobile as some ratio of miles traveled to gallons of gasoline expended. However, the key example of efficiency that holds greatest interest for consumers is convenience, with the O/I ratio and time as a denominator. Examples of consumer value “should be interpreted as cases of efficiency in general and convenience in particular by virtue of their relevance to time” (Holbrook 13). Two statements were provided that addressed the Efficiency category. An average of 74.4% respondents agreed with the statements “My jacket gives me comfort and freedom of movement when riding” and “My black leather jacket gives me a sense of protection for biking activities.” http://ijms.nova.edu/Fall2010/IJMS_Artcl.DeLongetal.html Page 9 of 18 IJMS / DeLong et al / Black Leather Jacket 10/19/11 3:40 PM The jacket was succinctly described as a necessary piece of equipment associated with motorcycle riding by one respondent: “Riding is the motivation. The black leather jacket is a tool, designed & refined by motorcyclists to protect. It defines as a blacksmiths apron; construction workers hard hat; surgeons scrubs, a tool of the craft [sic].” While the respondent is quick to identify motorcycle riding as the primary motivation for wearing the leather jacket, he also recognizes the importance and efficiency of the jacket as an essential piece of equipment providing protection. One wearer describes the “efficiency” of wearing a black leather jacket with due consideration for jacket length, front flap closure, and freedom of arm movement while riding the bike. However, she also explains that she would remove her jacket when not riding, as it is not attractive to wear off the bike. One respondent summed up efficiency saying, “I wear leather for protection. The fact that it is black is only because it will go with any color bike.” The element of protection was voiced throughout the survey with recognition that the jackets were often too warm for the weather, uncomfortable, and not flattering. However, this did not cause the riders to abandon the traditional black leather jacket, as is evidenced in statements such as “I only wear it for protection--otherwise, it would not be part of my outfit,” or “The leather keeps you from getting road rash when you fall down,” and “I wear it because when you crash you can get up again. It also protects against weather, bugs and dirt.” Such statements express the “go-to” nature of the black leather jacket with a high output to input ratio (O/I ratio). Other-oriented, reactive, intrinsic, spirituality (faith, ecstasy, sacredness, magic) While self-oriented values dominate the scale with four of the top five, one other-oriented category fell second in importance to respondents. Responses to “other-oriented, reactive, intrinsic, spirituality” statements revealed 68.7% agreement. Spirituality entails an “intrinsically motivated acceptance, adoption, appreciation, admiration or adoration of an Other,” according to Holbrook (23). Such an “Other” may be some mystical entity or even “some otherwise inaccessible Inner Being and where such an experience is sought not as a means to an ulterior end but rather as an end in itself prized for its own sake” (Holbrook 23). According to Holbrook, axiologists, who study ways of valuing, agree that through such magical experiences, “spiritual value is pursued for its own sake” (23). While it may be connected to religion, spirituality is also associated with a connection with nature, feelings of ecstasy linked with experiences while wearing the jacket or a sense of acceptance of oneself and of a world/universe beyond oneself. http://ijms.nova.edu/Fall2010/IJMS_Artcl.DeLongetal.html Page 10 of 18 IJMS / DeLong et al / Black Leather Jacket 10/19/11 3:40 PM Three individuals shared these thoughts in the comment box: “I feel close to God when I ride. No distractions of radio, phone etc”; Motorcycle riding helps me to find my center, relax & feel alive. I’ve been riding motorcycles since I was 6 years old and I just need to ride. I am now almost 50 years old”; and “As the saying goes ‘Four wheels move the body, two wheels move the soul.’ It's an amazing sense of freedom–only second to piloting a plane.” The addition of patches to the black leather jacket is seen as a means of expressing the spiritual connection to riding. Selected by the riders and stitched to the jacket, they become a part of the overall appearance of the jacket. The riders are not just wearing a black leather jacket for protection in these cases but use it as a means to express personal beliefs, as in the case of patches sold on a motorcycle club website exemplify the expressive values of spirituality with sayings such as “Loud Pipes May Save Lives but Jesus Christ Saves Souls.” 20% of respondents stated they added patches to their jackets. Patches were selected for varied purposes, often to mark accomplishments, club membership, event attendance, and to represent political and spiritual feelings. Four respondents specifically noted religious patches they added to their jacket. A male participant stated, “I only have the patches that identify me as a Christian biker and member of CMA (Christian Motorcycling Association).” Another has a patch that says “Jesus.” She gives her reason for including this patch as, “He is my protector.” The act of adhering patches to a jacket adds to the overall projected image of the jacket and the individual, just as any applied decoration does to any piece of clothing. Self-oriented, intrinsic, play (fun) In play, we pursue a major shift from the left to the right hand side of Holbrook’s Typology. “As a self-oriented experience—actively sought and enjoyed for its own sake—play typically involves having fun and thereby characterizes the intrinsically motivated side of the familiar distinction often made between work and leisure” (Holbrook 18). An example is when one plays the piano and is actively engaged in an experience pursued for the sake of one’s own pleasure. Sixty percent of respondents describe a sense of freedom and release in riding their motorcycle and wearing their black leather jacket, agreeing with statements such as “I ride to spend time with others I enjoy,” “I feel like I am living on the edge when riding” and “My black leather jacket gives me pleasure to wear.” Riders further expressed their motivations in statements like “My http://ijms.nova.edu/Fall2010/IJMS_Artcl.DeLongetal.html Page 11 of 18 IJMS / DeLong et al / Black Leather Jacket 10/19/11 3:40 PM leather jacket is designed to intimidate others so that I can be left alone. The leather jacket is also an expression of my creativity” and “I get a thumbs up when riding from other riders!” One frequent rider said having kids see him on the road, smile and wave was a benefit he associates with wearing his jacket. Another expressed the fun of presenting a daunting image projected by wearing his jacket. He said, “People are scared of me because I am a biker. I'm all about intimidating people. The other lawyers at my firm are scared of me and I like that.” Further evidence of play is found in agreement to sentences such as “It is exhilarating to ride, to feel the wind on my face” and “I feel like I am living on the edge when riding.” Self-oriented, reactive, extrinsic, excellence (quality) As conceived by Holbrook, “excellence involves a reactive appreciation of some object’s or experience’s potential ability to serve as an extrinsic means to some personal self-oriented end” (14). Excellence involves admiring an object or valuing some experience for its capacity to accomplish a goal or perform some function. Quality, then, is placing emphasis on the functional aspects with satisfaction being based on comparing performance with expectations. Holbrook suggests that “quality arises as a salient type of consumer value when I admire a product for its capacity to achieve some self-oriented want but do so without actually using it for that purpose—in other words, reactively rather than actively (as in the case of efficiency)” (15). For example, I might appreciate the acceleration of a Ferrari without trying it and still value this aspect of its quality. Thus, the consumer value of excellence is closely connected to the experience of consumer expectation. When riders were asked to consider the quality, protection and look of the black leather jacket as motivation for its wear, an average of 56.5% of respondents agreed to statements that indicate self-oriented, reactive, extrinsic, excellence (quality). Fit, protection, quality and comfort were voiced consistently in the open-ended motivation responses and in answering the question, “What do you specifically look for in purchasing a black leather jacket?” Appreciation of excellence and quality was also expressed in answering the question “Tell us about a positive experience you had while wearing your black leather jacket.” From absorbing the impact of bugs and stones to frightening a “little old lady,” not a single respondent refrained from sharing a good memory associated with his or her jacket. Within open-ended responses throughout the survey, the protective qualities of the jackets were expressed over and over. The avoidance of http://ijms.nova.edu/Fall2010/IJMS_Artcl.DeLongetal.html Page 12 of 18 IJMS / DeLong et al / Black Leather Jacket 10/19/11 3:40 PM road rash or worse from a fall was credited to the jacket by dozens of riders. While the above four categories garnered the greatest levels of agreement, the other four (aesthetics, ethics, esteem and status) also had levels of concurrence that express the importance of the black leather jacket in all of Holbrook’s categories. Self-oriented, reactive, intrinsic, aesthetics (beauty) The value of aesthetics draws from the multi-level experiential nature of consumption enjoyed for itself: appreciation of characteristics of the object itself, the experience of the use of the object by the wearer and the experience of the use of the object by the wearer as viewed by others (Holbrook 20). Three statements were included whose agreement signaled value placed on the aesthetics of the black leather jacket. They were “My black leather jacket gives me pleasure to wear,” “My black leather jacket projects the image I desire,” “I value wearing my black leather jacket because of the way it looks.” It is interesting to note that while 79.4% of female respondents and 66.1% of male respondents agreed that their jacket(s) were similar or similar with minor differences to the provided prototype image (Figure 1) and 96.9% of respondents provided detailed information on why or why not their jacket was similar, only 31.9% agreed to aesthetic related value statements. Often those who did not identify their jacket with the prototype listed a brand name of a jacket as a seemingly obvious aesthetic explanation for their lack of agreement. Enthusiastic descriptions of jackets through open-ended responses throughout the survey suggest high levels of wearer’s knowledge of the jacket itself. However, responses to the consumer value statements strongly support other factors as critical to wearers’ connections to and choice of the black leather jacket. Other-oriented, active, intrinsic, ethics (virtue, justice, morality) Holbrook’s other-oriented, active, intrinsic value centers on ethics and is defined as “doing something for the sake of others—that is, with a concern for how it will affect them or how they will react to it” (21). Over one-fourth of respondents (26.6%) agreed with statements concerning virtue and justice showing a significant connection to the value of ethics. While the FBI & Criminal Service Canada designate four outlaw motorcycle gangs (Pagans, Hells Angels, Outlaws MN and Bandidos), most motorcyclists insist illegal activity is isolated. In fact, multiple individuals indicated in their survey responses that they ride to support causes. http://ijms.nova.edu/Fall2010/IJMS_Artcl.DeLongetal.html Page 13 of 18 IJMS / DeLong et al / Black Leather Jacket 10/19/11 3:40 PM For instance, the Patriot Guard is a national organization of motorcycle riders who escort returning military troops to their communities and attend funerals of fallen soldiers as guests of the families. They maintain two principle objectives: to show “sincere respect for our fallen heroes, their families, and their communities,” and “to shield the mourning family and their friends from interruptions created by any protestor or group of protestors.” They maintain a high level of ethics and stress they conduct their activities through “strictly legal and non-violent means” (Patriot Guard Riders). Several survey respondents noted membership in the Minnesota Patriot Guard as their reason for riding and wearing their black leather jacket. Fundraisers, toy runs, charity events, and support for individual rights are other ethics related reasons riders observed for wearing their black leather jackets. When asked to describe an event or activity when they would wear their jacket, one person stated, “typical toy run, charity run, or riders’ civil rights organization.” Several people specifically noted they wear their jackets for parades, including Gay Pride and other community events. One person noted she wears her jacket to gay pride parades, dyke marches, and Dykes on Bikes® rides. Eight other individuals mentioned pride events when asked to describe an activity or event when they choose to wear their black leather jacket. Five participants provided quotes voicing associations of wearing their jacket with military and country pride. A male participant identified his jacket as a visual marker of his pride in his country’s military saying, “It [the jacket] shows my pride in all our military personnel. [I wear it] to remind everyone to be patriotic.” Other-oriented, reactive, extrinsic, esteem (reputation, materialism, possessions) The consumer values of esteem and status have common motivations from the consumer. Holbrook differentiates the two as esteem, resulting “from a somewhat passive ownership of possessions appreciated as a means to building one’s reputation with others” (14). An average of 23.9% of respondents agreed to statements that indicate other-oriented, reactive, extrinsic, esteem (reputation, materialism, possession). Statements in this category revolved around establishing a reputation or image through respondents’ actions while wearing the jacket. The desire to use the jacket to project a desired image, to be a member of a biker club or to look cool led to comments such as “Strangers tend to leave me alone, as I don't want to be talking to people,” “People think in combination with the jacket and helmet I am a bad ass” and “Women are always attracted to a man they see wearing his leather jacket and http://ijms.nova.edu/Fall2010/IJMS_Artcl.DeLongetal.html Page 14 of 18 IJMS / DeLong et al / Black Leather Jacket 10/19/11 3:40 PM know he is soon to be back on his motorcycle.” Other-oriented, active, extrinsic, status (success, impression management) As defined by Holbrook, the consumer value of status works to alter consumption patterns in order to influence others (16). Six statements supported Holbrook’s value of status. All were designed to assess the wearer’s desire to project a certain image or elicit a certain response from viewers. Examples of these statements are “It is better for the environment to ride a motorcycle,” “My black leather jacket defines my identity as a biker,” and “My black leather jacket enhances my reputation.” Agreement to all statements about status averaged 18.8%. Often status was expressed by the brand of jacket worn or patches on the jacket that tied the individual to a particular club. Harley-Davidson riders were especially vocal in this regard. Thirty-eight participants (9.8%) specifically mentioned Harley-Davidson in at least one of their survey responses. Conclusions In this research, we addressed how the wearer values the black leather jacket according to the Typology of Consumer Value created by Holbrook. Using Holbrook’s framework was important in ferreting out values held by consumers of the black leather jacket and served to identify a full range of expressions of value. We learned that while the iconic twentieth-century form of the jacket has remained consistent, as the demographics of the rider evolve, so does the value associated with wearing the jacket. Contemporary riders who participated in the study place high value on the jacket for practical reasons, such as efficiency, and values that reached beyond themselves, such as spirituality and playfulness, and not necessarily limited to the persona as represented by the twentieth-century biker. We learned how the meanings tied to the jacket relate to the experiences of the contemporary rider who dons the jacket. Responses to the seventeen value statements and the open-ended questions focused on experiences related to wearing the black leather jacket. This facilitated determination of values to the wearer. In the twenty-first century, wearers relate to a number of values in wearing the black leather jacket; among the highest in agreement were Holbrook’s categories of efficiency, spirituality, play, and excellence. Wearers describe a number of different values in wearing the black leather jacket that are integral to the experience of riding: the feeling of freedom and release from stress that they get from riding and wearing black leather, http://ijms.nova.edu/Fall2010/IJMS_Artcl.DeLongetal.html Page 15 of 18 IJMS / DeLong et al / Black Leather Jacket 10/19/11 3:40 PM leaving the confines of daily life for the freedoms of the road. Unlike the twentieth-century biker for whom the jacket was the embodiment of his lifestyle, the contemporary biker’s persona does not seem to transfer back to his conventional life except as a supplementary enhancement to that life. The black leather jacket remains the “go-to” uniform of bikers. However, it is strongly valued for fun and escape for contemporary bikers interested in traversing personal boundaries. The image that characterized the jacket wearer in mid-twentieth century persists in respondents’ comments about the jacket, but appears to go beyond to those values identified by any regular Joe or Josephine. Through this analysis we learned that while the specific details of the jacket may vary slightly, the black leather jacket is still considered a traditional must-have for riders, and has solidified its place as a uniform for men and women who value wearing it for many reasons. Respondents report that the jacket provides an efficient, effective piece of safety equipment, a fun item to wear, a long-lasting quality garment to own and an article that allows them to feel safe and closer to nature. They find their black leather jacket provides them with the ability to move between their various life roles. The jacket has the rare quality of transgressing lines between a wearer’s age, gender, and lifestyle differences—to gather and reciprocate information. Bikers, now male and female, who put on their leathers, report a gamut of values in riding and wearing the black leather jacket. Notes [1] According to the Motorcycle Industry Council, female ownership was 12.3 % in 2008 (12). [2] The 2000 US census reports the average American aged 35.3, with an average household income of $41,997. Survey participants are older and more affluent than the average American. Works Cited Alford, Steven and Suzanne Ferriss. Motorcycle. London: Reaktion Books Ltd., 2007. Brustein, Robert. “America’s New Culture Hero, Feelings without http://ijms.nova.edu/Fall2010/IJMS_Artcl.DeLongetal.html Page 16 of 18 IJMS / DeLong et al / Black Leather Jacket 10/19/11 3:40 PM Words.” Commentary 25.2 (1958): 123-129. Constantino, Maria. Men’s Fashion in the Twentieth Century: From Frock Coats to Intelligent Fibres. New York: Costume and Fashion Press, 1997. DeLong, Marilyn and Park, Juyeon. “From Hot to Cool to Hot: The Case for the Black Leather Jacket.” The Men’s Fashion Reader. Ed. Andrew Reiley and Sarah Cosbey. New York: Fairchild, 2008. 166179. Farren, Mick. The Black Leather Jacket. New York: Plexus Publishing, 1958. Holbrook, Morris, B. “Introduction to Consumer Value.” Consumer Value: A Framework for Analysis and Research. Ed. Morris B. Holbrook. New York: Routledge, 1999. 1-28. McDonald-Walker, Suzanne. Bikers: Culture, Politics and Power. Oxford: Berg, 2000. Motorcycle Industry Council. Statistical Annual. Irvine, CA: Motorcycle Industry Council, 2009. Patriot Guard Riders. “Patriot Guard Riders Mission Statement.” 29 July 2009. http://www.patriotguard.org Phillips, Lily. “Blue Jeans, Black Leather Jackets, and a Sneer: The Iconography of the 1950s Biker and its Translation Abroad.” International Journal of Motorcycle Studies 1 (2005): http://ijms.nova.edu/March2005/IJMSArtclPhilips0305.html. Polhemus, Ted. Style Surfing: What to Wear in the 3rd Millennium. London: Thames and Hudson Ltd., 1996. Salisbury, Mike. “Hey Johnny, What are You Rebelling Against?” Forbes FYI. 174 (Fall 2004): 92-97. Steele, Valerie. Fetish: Fashion, Sex & Power. University Press, 1996. London: Oxford Tanaka, Rin. Motorcycle Jackets: A Century of Leather Design. Atglen, PA: Schiffer Publishing Ltd., 2000. http://ijms.nova.edu/Fall2010/IJMS_Artcl.DeLongetal.html Page 17 of 18 IJMS / DeLong et al / Black Leather Jacket 10/19/11 3:40 PM Feel free to post your reactions to our web board and continue the conversation with other readers. 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